Tuesday, March 29, 2011

The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda

The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda (New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 1994; revised and enlarged edition, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2000) claims regularities in the organization of the Rigveda, connecting the structure to certain numbers in the astronomy-based ritual of the five-layered brick altars of the Vedic times.

Kak's archaeoastronomical claims have the effect of significantly extending the Vedic period, postulating the arrival of ethnic Indo-Aryans to the 7th millennium BC. This claim is in contradiction with mainstream Indology and historical linguistics and science historians
Kak arranges the number of hymns in each book of the Rigveda as follows, and compares the arrangement to a Vedic fire altar:

RV 10:191 RV 9:114
RV 7 :104 RV 8: 92
RV 5 : 87 RV 6: 75
RV 3 : 62 RV 4: 58
RV 2 : 43 RV 1:191

He then computes various sums and subtractions within the diagram, finding numbers related to the distance between the Earth and the Sun, and the sidereal periods of various planets.
Kak's method depends on the structure of the Rigveda as redacted by Shakalya in the late Brahmana period as opposed to the intrinsic content in the oldest portions of the text. Specifically, Witzel (2001) believes that Kak's approach relates to the organizations of the Rigveda into mandalas ("books"), a process of redaction undertaken by the shakhas long after the composition of the individual hymns (the samhita prose period, dating to well within the Indian Iron Age), rendering the attempt to date the text in this flawed[citation needed]. Other scholars have discredited Kak's claims and methods. Nanda has said that Kak's "method is breathtakingly ad hoc and reads like numerology 101."

Mr Bachmann's Revisions

Mr Bachmann has done much good work for Wikipedia, but he is way out of line on the insistence that his view should prevail. Here's why:
1 Witzel's essay appeared in EJVS, which is not a peer-reviewed journal; it is list serve that is controlled by him. This article is a rant, and not a scholarly assessment of the evidence. Further, Mr Witzel is not an expert on astronomy.
2 Kim Plofker was a post-doc (not a professor) when she wrote her review; she is still a post-doc (hardly an authority). Also, her review was on the first edition, and the second edition appeared 5 years after this review.
3 Assuming these opinions to be sound in themselves, we must realize that there are other scholars both in the West and India who don't agree with them, and Mr Bachmann should have the courtesy to let their views also be represented.
4 Mr Kak's work in the book appeared first in peer-reviewed journal in the West and in India. Checking his chapter in Selin's book (that in on arXiv.org), I see papers that appeared in Vistas in Astronomy (UK), Mankind Quarterly (USA), Proc. of the Royal Astronomical Society (UK), Indian J. of History of Science, Puratattva (Indological j. from India0, and the many favourable reviews in journals.
5 His analysis has been incorporated in essays in the Kluwer Encylopedia of Non-Western Science, Kluwer Encyclopedia of Non-Western Astronomy, and Stanley Wolpert's Encyclpedia of India (2006). The implication of this is that Western scholars generally support Kak's work on Rig Vedic astronomy.
6This work forms several chapters in the 85 volume History of Science and Civilization in India that is being currently edited by Professor D.P. Chattopadhyaya.
It appears to me that the previous edits that let the Witzel reference (Plofker's should not even be there since it concerns an older, obsolete edition) in together with a couple of representative pro-Kak references is a more reasonable thing.
Also Bachmann is wrong in claiming that Kak supports the influx of Aryans into India in 7000 BC or pre-3000 BC. He is silent on this. His lone argument from his side is that the Rig Veda should be prior to 2000 BC or so.

No comments:

High culture !

High culture is a term, now used in a number of different ways in academic discourse, whose most common meaning is the set of culturalproducts, mainly in the arts, held in the highest esteem by a culture. In more popular terms, it is the culture of an elite such as thearistocracy or intelligentsia. It is contrasted with the low culture or popular culture of, variously, the less well-educated, barbarians,philistines or the masses.

Much of High Culture consists of the appreciation of what is sometimes called High Art. This term is rather broader than Arnold's definition and besides Literature includes Music, Visual arts, especially Painting, and traditional forms of the Performing arts, now including someCinema. The Decorative arts would not generally be considered High art.

The cultural products most regarded as forming part of High culture are most likely to have been produced during periods of High civilization, for which a large, sophisticated and wealthy urban-based society provides a coherent & conscious aesthetic framework, and a large-scale milieu of training, and, for the visual arts, sourcing materials and financing work. All this is so that the artist is able, as near as possible, to realize his creative potential with as few as possible practical and technical constraints. Although the Western concept of High Culture naturally concentrates on the Graeco-Roman tradition, and its resumption from the Renaissance onwards, it would normally be recognised that such conditions existed in other places at other times. A tentative list of High Cultures, or cultures producing High art, might therefore be:

The Parthenon

Ancient Egypt
Ancient Greece
Ancient Rome
China
Ancient India
Byzantium
Persia
Several cultures of the Middle East at various periods
Europe from the 14th century

Civilized Core

Civilized Core refers to the four advanced civilizations that emerged during the 1st millennium BCE, during the earlier Iron Age after the collapse of the Bronze Age civilizations that preceded them.

These were, in no particular order, the civilizations of

Zhou China, culminating in the Han Empire in the 3rd century BCE
Mesopotamia (Babylonia and Assyria), culminating in the unified Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE
Iron Age India, the Mahajanapadas culminating in the Maurya Empire in the 4th century BCE
The Mediterranean, developing from scattered Phoenician settlements to the emergence of Ancient Greece in the 7th century BCE and culminating in the Hellenistic civilization in the 4th century BCE, by the 3rd century BCE streching its influence throughout the Mesopotamian and into the Indian sphere.

Righteous man.

Beit is numerically equal to the word "ta'avah," which means "desire" or "passion".
In several places "ta'avah" denotes the positive passion of the tzadik, the righteous man.
One passage in Proverbs states:
"He will fulfill the passion of the tzadik,"
and a second says:
"the passions of tzadikim are only good."
The "ta'avah" of G-d, the "Tzadik of the world," is altogether above reason and logic. At this level one cannot ask "why."
As expressed by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi:
"About passion, there can be no question." As G-d is the essence of good so His passion is "only good."

Why Philosophy ?

This will be, necessarily, a very personal answer to the question.
We are all philosophers, although we might not call ourselves by that title.
Anyone has a personal selection of important philosophical works -the most important philosophical works that one should read in order to gain a deeper insight into the discipline as a whole-.
In fact, philosophy is hard to avoid, even with conscious effort.
Any statement one can make about philosophy will come from some set of values or beliefs, which are of course, phiosophical questions themselves.
So we're all philosophers to some extent, and all people have been since the dawn of consicousness, when the "naked ape" began to think about what he or she was doing, and how they were doing it and to what end they were doing it. These are the questions that indicate a higher consciousness than that of the other animals, and theyare the beginning of phiosophy.
..
What's in it for whom?
What's the benefits of philosophy for the individual, the state, the priesthood, the working classes, women, animals and professional philosphers ?
..

Classical Studies

The word classical has several meanings. In general, these meanings refer to some past time, works of that time or later works influenced by that time. Classical things are often seen as ordered and part of high culture or a golden age, and contrasted to earlier or later things which may be seen as chaotic, elaborate or emotional.

Classical antiquity is a long period of history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. This period is conventionally taken to stretch from roughly the 7th or 8th century BC to the 5th century AD. It is often seen as a golden age of Western civilisation, preceding the Dark Ages of the early medieval period.

The word classical can refer to something from classical antiquity. For example:

A Classical scholar is someone who studies the Classics - the language and culture of classical antiquity, particularly its literature.
Classical philosophy
Classical mythology
Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as classical Latin literature. It is distinct from both vulgar Latin and medieval Latin. This distinction from vulgar Latin is in keeping with the meaning of the Latin word classicus given above.
Classical architecture
- Classical order - one of the ancient styles of building design in the classical tradition. Originally Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, these were added to and modified by the Romans.
High classical refers to Greek art associated mainly with Athens and the works atop the Acropolis
A classical education normally means an education in the classics, including learning Latin and ancient Greek. However, is can refer to the Classical education movement.
The word classical can also be used to refer to other cultures, by analogy with classical antiquity and classical music. Examples of this usage include:
- Classical language, a dead or archaic language comparable to classical Latin. This normally means it has a literature that is considered classical, it is associated with a golden age, it was spoken by high-status people or it is considered to be ordered. Examples illustrating this are given below:
  - Classical Arabic is the Arabic language in which the Qur'an is written
  - Classical Nahuatl is the language spoken by Aztec nobles in the Valley of Mexico at the time of the 16th-century Spanish conquest
  - Classical French is the French language as systematised in the 17th and 18th centuries
- Four Great Classical Novels, considered to be the greatest and most influential in Chinese fiction
- The list of classical music styles gives many styles of music considered classical.

Western intellectual tradition.

Examples of canonical lists (in which the selectors have attempted to list only the most important works) include:

University reading lists are also good indicators of what is considered to be in the Western canon:

Columbia College Core Curriculum
St. John's College reading list
Yale College Directed Studies curriculum
Stanford University's Program in Structured Liberal Education curriculum
Princeton University's Interdisciplinary Approaches to Western Culture
University of Notre Dame's Program of Liberal Studies curriculum

Longer lists (in which the selectors have attempted to be more comprehensive):

Loeb Classical Library (Greek and Latin authors)
I Tatti Renaissance Library (Renaissance authors)
Everyman's Library (Modern works)
Penguin Classics

The Brain

The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. It produces our every thought, action, memory, feeling and experience of the world. This jelly-like mass of tissue, weighing in at around 1.4 kilograms, contains a staggering one hundred billion nerve cells, or neurons.

The complexity of the connectivity between these cells is mind-boggling. Each neuron can make contact with thousands or even tens of thousands of others, via tiny structures called synapses. Our brains form a million new connections for every second of our lives. The pattern and strength of the connections is constantly changing and no two brains are alike.

It is in these changing connections that memories are stored, habits learnedand personalities shaped, by reinforcing certain patterns of brain activity, and losing others.

Grey matter

While people often speak of their "grey matter", the brain also contains white matter. The grey matter is the cell bodies of the neurons, while the white matter is the branching network of thread-like tendrils - called dendrites andaxons - that spread out from the cell bodies to connect to other neurons.

But the brain also has another, even more numerous type of cell, called glial cells. These outnumber neurons ten times over. Once thought to be support cells, they are now known to amplify neural signals and to be as important as neurons in mental calculations. There are many different types of neuron, only one of which is unique to humans and the other great apes, the so calledspindle cells.

Brain structure is shaped partly by genes, but largely by experience. Only relatively recently it was discovered that new brain cells are being bornthroughout our lives - a process called neurogenesis. The brain has bursts of growth and then periods of consolidation, when excess connections are pruned. The most notable bursts are in the first two or three years of life, during puberty, and also a final burst in young adulthood.

How a brain ages also depends on genes and lifestyle too. Exercising the brain and giving it the right diet can be just as important as it is for the rest of the body.

Chemical messengers

The neurons in our brains communicate in a variety of ways. Signals pass between them by the release and capture of neurotransmitter andneuromodulator chemicals, such as glutamate, dopamine, acetylcholine,noradrenalin, serotonin and endorphins.

Some neurochemicals work in the synapse, passing specific messages from release sites to collection sites, called receptors. Others also spread their influence more widely, like a radio signal, making whole brain regions more or less sensitive.

These neurochemicals are so important that deficiencies in them are linked to certain diseases. For example, a loss of dopamine in the basal ganglia, which control movements, leads to Parkinson's disease. It can also increase susceptibility to addiction because it mediates our sensations of reward and pleasure.

Similarly, a deficiency in serotonin, used by regions involved in emotion, can be linked to depression or mood disorders, and the loss of acetylcholine in the cerebral cortex is characteristic of Alzheimer's disease.

Brain scanning

Within individual neurons, signals are formed by electrochemical pulses. Collectively, this electrical activity can be detected outside the scalp by anelectroencephalogram (EEG).

These signals have wave-like patterns, which scientists classify from alpha (common while we are relaxing or sleeping), through to gamma (active thought). When this activity goes awry, it is called a seizure. Some researchers think that synchronising the activity in different brain regions isimportant in perception.

Other ways of imaging brain activity are indirect. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or positron emission tomography (PET) monitor blood flow. MRI scans, computed tomography (CT) scans and diffusion tensor images (DTI) use the magnetic signatures of different tissues, X-ray absorption, or the movement of water molecules in those tissues, to image the brain.

These scanning techniques have revealed which parts of the brain areassociated with which functions. Examples include activity related tosensations, movement, libido, choices, regrets, motivations and even racism. However, some experts argue that we put too much trust in these results and that they raise privacy issues.

Before scanning techniques were common, researchers relied on patients with brain damage caused by strokes, head injuries or illnesses, to determine which brain areas are required for certain functions. This approach exposed the regions connected to emotions, dreams, memory, language andperception and to even more enigmatic events, such as religious or "paranormal" experiences.

One famous example was the case of Phineas Gage, a 19^th century railroad worker who lost part of the front of his brain when a 1-metre-long iron pole was blasted through his head during an explosion. He recovered physically, but was left with permanent changes to his personality, showing for the first time that specific brain regions are linked to different processes.

Structure in mind

The most obvious anatomical feature of our brains is the undulating surfac of the cerebrum - the deep clefts are known as sulci and its folds are gyri. The cerebrum is the largest part of our brain and is largely made up of the twocerebral hemispheres. It is the most evolutionarily recent brain structure, dealing with more complex cognitive brain activities.

It is often said that the right hemisphere is more creative and emotional and the left deals with logic, but the reality is more complex. Nonetheless, the sides do have some specialisations, with the left dealing with speech and language, the right with spatial and body awareness.

See our Interactive Graphic for more on brain structure

Further anatomical divisions of the cerebral hemispheres are the occipital lobeat the back, devoted to vision, and the parietal lobe above that, dealing withmovement, position, orientation and calculation.

Behind the ears and temples lie the temporal lobes, dealing with sound and speech comprehension and some aspects of memory. And to the fore are the frontal and prefrontal lobes, often considered the most highly developed and most "human" of regions, dealing with the most complex thought, decision making, planning, conceptualising, attention control and working memory. They also deal with complex social emotions such as regret, morality andempathy.

Another way to classify the regions is as sensory cortex and motor cortex, controlling incoming information, and outgoing behaviour respectively.

Below the cerebral hemispheres, but still referred to as part of the forebrain, is the cingulate cortex, which deals with directing behaviour and pain. And beneath this lies the corpus callosum, which connects the two sides of the brain. Other important areas of the forebrain are the basal ganglia, responsible for movement, motivation and reward.

Urges and appetites

Beneath the forebrain lie more primitive brain regions. The limbic system, common to all mammals, deals with urges and appetites. Emotions are most closely linked with structures called the amygdala, caudate nucleus andputamen. Also in the limbic brain are the hippocampus - vital for forming new memories; the thalamus - a kind of sensory relay station; and thehypothalamus, which regulates bodily functions via hormone release from thepituitary gland.

The back of the brain has a highly convoluted and folded swelling called thecerebellum, which stores patterns of movement, habits and repeated tasks - things we can do without thinking about them.

The most primitive parts, the midbrain and brain stem, control the bodily functions we have no conscious control of, such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, sleep patterns, and so on. They also control signals that pass between the brain and the rest of the body, through the spinal cord.

Though we have discovered an enormous amount about the brain, huge andcrucial mysteries remain. One of the most important is how does the brain produces our conscious experiences?

The vast majority of the brain's activity is subconscious. But our consciousthoughts, sensations and perceptions - what define us as humans - cannot yet be explained in terms of brain activity.

If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, pleasecontact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to.

The writing on the cave wall

The Human Brain and Human Evolution

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Gallery: Messages from the Stone Age

THE first intrepid explorers to brave the 7-metre crawl through a perilously narrow tunnel leading to the Chauvet caves in southern France were rewarded with magnificent artwork to rival any modern composition. Stretching a full 3 metres in height, the paintings depict a troupe of majestic horses in deep colours, above a pair of boisterous rhinos in the midst of a fight. To the left, they found the beautiful rendering of a herd of prehistoric cows. "The horse heads just seem to leap out of the wall towards you," says Jean Clottes, former director of scientific research at the caves and one of the few people to see the paintings with his own eyes.

When faced with such spectacular beauty, who could blame the visiting anthropologists for largely ignoring the modest semicircles, lines and zigzags also marked on the walls? Yet dismissing them has proved to be something of a mistake. The latest research has shown that, far from being doodles, the marks are in fact highly symbolic, forming a written "code" that was familiar to all of the prehistoric tribes around France and possibly beyond. Indeed, these unprepossessing shapes may be just as remarkable as the paintings of trotting horses and tussling rhinos, providing a snapshot into humankind's first steps towards symbolism and writing.

Until now, the accepted view has been that our ancestors underwent a "creative explosion" around 30,000 to 40,000 years ago, when they suddenly began to think abstractly and create rock art. This idea is supported by the plethora of stunning cave paintings, like those at Chauvet, which started to proliferate across Europe around this time. Writing, on the other hand, appeared to come much later, with the earliest records of a pictographic writing system dating back to just 5000 years ago.

Few researchers, though, had given any serious thought to the relatively small and inconspicuous marks around the cave paintings. The evidence of humanity's early creativity, they thought, was clearly in the elaborate drawings.

While some scholars like Clottes had recorded the presence of cave signs at individual sites, Genevieve von Petzinger, then a student at the University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada, was surprised to find that no one had brought all these records together to compare signs from different caves. And so, under the supervision of April Nowell, also at the University of Victoria, she devised an ambitious masters project. She compiled a comprehensive database of all recorded cave signs from 146 sites in France, covering 25,000 years of prehistory from 35,000 to 10,000 years ago.

What emerged was startling: 26 signs, all drawn in the same style, appeared again and again at numerous sites (see illustration). Admittedly, some of the symbols are pretty basic, like straight lines, circles and triangles, but the fact that many of the more complex designs also appeared in several places hinted to von Petzinger and Nowell that they were meaningful - perhaps even the seeds of written communication.

What emerged was startling - 26 signs, all drawn in the same style, appeared again and again

A closer look confirmed their suspicions. When von Petzinger went back to some of the records of the cave walls, she noticed other, less abstract signs that appeared to represent a single part of a larger figure - like the tusks of a mammoth without an accompanying body. This feature, known as synecdoche, is common in the known pictographic languages. To von Petzinger and Nowell, it demonstrated that our ancestors were indeed considering how to represent ideas symbolically rather than realistically, eventually leading to the abstract symbols that were the basis of the original study.

"It was a way of communicating information in a concise way," says Nowell. "For example, the mammoth tusks may have simply represented a mammoth, or a mammoth hunt, or something that has nothing to do with a literal interpretation of mammoths." Other common forms of synecdoche include two concentric circles or triangles (used as eyes in horse and bison paintings), ibex horns and the hump of a mammoth. The claviform figure - which looks somewhat like a numeral 1 - may even be a stylised form of the female figure, she says.

The real clincher came with the observation that certain signs appear repeatedly in pairs. Negative hands and dots tend to be one of the most frequent pairings, for example, especially during a warm climate period known as the Gravettian (28,000 to 22,000 years ago). One site called Les Trois-Frères in the French Pyrenees, even shows four sign types grouped together: negative hands, dots, finger fluting and thumb stencils (a rare subcategory of the negative hands).

Grouping is typically seen in early pictographic languages - the combined symbols representing a new concept - and the researchers suspect that prehistoric Europeans had established a similar system. "The consistency of the pairings indicate that they could really have had a meaning," says Nowell. "We are perhaps seeing the first glimpses of a rudimentary language system."

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A Syntopicon: An Index to The Great Ideas (1952) is a two-volume index, published as volumes 1 and 2 of Encyclopaedia Britannica’s collection Great Books of the Western World. Compiled by Mortimer Adler, an American philosopher, under the guidance of Robert Hutchins, president of the University of Chicago, the volumes were billed as a collection of the 102 great ideas of the western canon. The term “syntopicon” was coined specifically for this undertaking, meaning “a collection of topics.”^[1] The volumes catalogued what Adler and his team deemed to be the fundamental ideas contained in the works of the Great Books of the Western World, which stretched chronologically from Homer to Freud. The Syntopicon lists, under each idea, where every occurrence of the concept can be located in the collection’s famous works.

Volume I: Angel, Animal, Aristocracy, Art, Astronomy, Beauty, Being, Cause, Chance, Change, Citizen, Constitution, Courage, Custom andConvention, Definition, Democracy, Desire, Dialectic, Duty, Education, Element, Emotion, Eternity, Evolution, Experience, Family, Fate,Form, God, Good and Evil, Government, Habit, Happiness, History, Honor, Hypothesis, Idea, Immortality, Induction, Infinity, Judgment,Justice, Knowledge, Labor, Language, Law, Liberty, Life and Death, Logic, and Love

Volume II: Man, Mathematics, Matter, Mechanics, Medicine, Memory and Imagination, Metaphysics, Mind, Monarchy, Nature, Necessityand Contingency, Oligarchy, One and Many, Opinion, Opposition, Philosophy, Physics, Pleasure and Pain, Poetry, Principle, Progress,Prophecy, Prudence, Punishment, Quality, Quantity, Reasoning, Relation, Religion, Revolution, Rhetoric, Same and Other, Science, Sense,Sign and Symbol, Sin, Slavery, Soul, Space, State, Temperance, Theology, Time, Truth, Tyranny, Universal and Particular, Virtue and Vice,War and Peace, Wealth, Will, Wisdom, and World

Broad metasites:

Labyrinth WWW Home Page.
"Labyrinth" is a Web page for mediaevalists generally, maintained at Georgetown University. It has lots of pointers to other sites you may want to browse.
Daniel Mosser's WWW Medieval Resources Page.
Links to places of interest to mediaevalists.
The "Perseus" Project at Tufts University.
A very handy place to go for all things Greek, including texts (Greek and English, with tools for reading Greek on-line), lexica, etc. Recently added: a searchable version of Smyth’s Greek Grammar, and a number of materials in Latin, including an on-line, searchable version of the well known Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary.
On-Line Text Materials for Medieval Studies.
Just what it says. There are lots of things here, some of them relevant to mediaeval logic and philosophy.
Internet Medieval Sourcebook.
Ditto.
The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources.
Hosted by Catholic University of America. Some of this will not be relevant to people pursuing mediaeval logic and philosophy in particular. But some of it will be, and a lot of it is interesting in its own right.
Byzantine & Medieval Studies on the Internet.
Lots of links, including the texts of various conciliar and legal documents. Some of them may be relevant to tracking down the background to various philosophical discussions.
Medioevo Italiano
A site devoted to discussion of the Italian and European Middle Ages. Links to many other sites. Also, a very handy "forum" (bulletin-board) page for discussion of medieval topics, including sections in five European languages (Italian, English, French, German, Spanish).

Narrower topics/individual authors

The Gregory of Nyssa Home Page.
Translations of his works, bibliographies, images, links.
Guide to Early Church Documents
Links to lots of valuable resources.
Ramon Llull (1232/33-1316).
A convenient site with information on Llull's life, writings, and recent work in Llull-studies.
Resources on the WWW for the Study of Philo of Alexandria.
Articles, reviews of literature, and links to other resources on Philo and related topics.
The Albertus-Magnus-Institute, Bonn.
The home of the critical edition of the works of Albert the Great.
Albertus-Magnus Online.
An extremely interesting site, offering a "word in context" concordance of the logical writings of Albert the Great. The concordance can be downloaded, or searched on-line.
AlbertTheGreat.com.
A website offering the works of Albertus Magnus for sale after 700 years of censored obscurity — Opera omnia Alberti magni. The website includes sample images of the seven CD-ROM product line, provides a brief biography on Albert and has a scholastic forum ATG News as well.
Jacques Maritain Center
At the University of Notre Dame. The Center has a number of on-line texts of interest. For a list of the filenames of available texts, go to their etext directory. The file names there are abbreviated, so you'll have to explore to see what you are interested in. Here are a few representative things: (a) an encyclopedia article, "St. Thomas Aquinas and Medieval Philosophy"; (b) the (somewhat abridged) Rickaby translation of Aquinas' Summa contra gentiles. There's more too.
The Thomas Aquinas Webpage.
A new and very useful site, maintained by the Thomas Instituut te Utrecht. Lots of information and tools for research on Aquinas.
A Collated Web Index of Significant Historians and Philosophers,
Maintained by Peter Ravn Rasmussen. A very nice resource for information on, and works by, a variety of philosophers and historians, including many from the classical and mediaeval periods.
The Muslim Scholars Page.
A useful collection of biographical pages on a variety of Muslim thinkers, not all of them familiar from the usual Western textbooks.
Mysticism in World Religions
A resource for information on, and translations of texts from, Jewish, Christian, Muslim (Sufi), Buddhist, Hindu and Taoist mysticism.
The Richard Rufus of Cornwall Project
Maintained by Rega Wood. Contains information on the life, works and thought of Rufus.
Otfried Lieberknecht's Homepage for Dante Studies
A nicely organized site, with lots of information and links pertaining to Dante and related topics. Includes a nifty "Virtual Dante Bookship," in collaboration with amazon.com.
Email Forum Medieval-Religion
Located at the Centre for Medieval Studies, Univerisity of Bristol. A Web based discussion forum for topics in mediaeval religion and related issues.
Scholasticon
A site dedicated to the study of Late Scholasticism, both Catholic and Protestant (XVIth-XVIIth centuries). Includes a growing database of authors with bio-biographical descriptions, often unique, a book review section, an e-mail directory and links to useful instutitions. The working language of the site is French, but it is open to contributions in any language.
Philosophia Medii Aevi
A very useful site, maintained at the Dipartimento di Filosofia, Università di Lecce. Contains announcements of upcoming congresses and meetings, information on current research projects, editions in progress, links to electronic texts and other helpful information.
Équipe de Recherches sur les Mystiques Rhénans: Maître Eckhart, Jean Tauler, Henri Suso, Rulmann Merswinn.
A lovely site (in French) devoted to the study of the Rheinland mystics. Information on publications and conferences, a map, and and other useful things. Be sure to check out their page of Web links.
Maitre Eckhart
A site of materials on Eckhart, maintained by Wolfgang Wackernagel.
Fabienne Pironet's page for William Heytesbury's Sophismata.
Pironet is preparing a critical edition of this important work. In the meantime, the present webpage contains a transcription of the whole of Heytesbury's Sophismata, from the Venice edition of 1494 (Bonetus Locatellus for Octavianus Scotus), in Adobe PDF format. The page also contains a list of the sophisms treated in the work, a list of the manuscripts containing theSophismata, and a PDF file containing a bibliography of works and articles on Heytesbury.
Center for Medieval and Renaissance Natural Philosophy.
This is a research center, founded in 1998, to promote the study of natural philosophy and science in its formative period between the late Middle Ages and the seventeenth century. It is associated with the Department of Ancient and Medieval Philosophy at Nijmegen University, and integrates the research activities of six fellows who are attached to the research program "From Artes to Science: The Commentary Literature on Aristotle's Physics, 1250-1700," funded by the
Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research. Each year, it also provides fellowships to two or three post-doctorate scholars from abroad, organizes symposia and annual lecture series, and edits the journal Early Science and Medicine.
The Electronic Grosseteste.
Run by James Ginther (Leeds), this is an outstanding example of the possibilities of electronic scholarship. Contains viewable and downloable HTML files of Grosseteste's Latin works now in the public domain (includeing the Bauer edition). It will soon include bibliographical aids, and a searchable database of XML copyrighted texts (including some of his Aristotelian commentaries). Mandatory for everyone interested in Grosseteste.
The Olivi Page
David Burr's page of resources for Peter John Olivi. Contains a bibliography of secondary sources, a page for ongoing research, and links to unpublished sources in HTML and Adobe PDF format.
Formal Ontology
Includes bibliographies on E. Jennifer Ashworth, John P. Doyle, the ontological argument, and on medieval theories of supposition and mental language.
The Peter Auriol Homepage
A site maintained by Russell Friedman (Copenhagen), and devoted to information about Peter Auriol. Includes information about who Auriol was, recent research, the Auriol Editing Project, links, bibliography, etc.
Franciscan Authors, 13th–18th Century: A Catalogue in Progress
A co-production of Maarten van der Heijden and Bert Roest. A wonderful resource. An alphabetical collection of information on Franciscan authors — biographies, manuscripts, editions, links, etc. Plus links to a wealth of other resources.
Electronic version of the 1909 edition of J.G.T. Graesse, F. Benedict, and H. Plechl, Orbis Latinus : Lexikon lateinischer geographischer Namen des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit.
Maintained at Columbia University. Indispensable if you need to identify a place-name!
John of Miracourt, Commentary on the Sentences, Book I.
Provisional edition of the Latin text of Book I.
Jodocus Trutfetter und Bartholomäus Arnoldi von Usingen.
A page containing information about late medieval nominalism at Erfurt. (In German only.) Maintained by Pekka Kärkkäinen of the University of Helsinki.
Project Sophismata
A research project under the direction of Alain de Libera It aims to transcribe and edit sophismata texts, and to track down within the sophismata literature relevant patterns in semantic and logical enquiry in the late-thirteenth and early-fourteenth centuries.
Hermes Latinus
A site dedicated to studies in the Hermes Latinus tradition.
Thomae Aquinatis Opera Omnia
The complete works of Thomas Aquinas, available on-line. Hosted by Thomas Aquinas College.
Corpus thomisticum
Another on-line set of the complete works of Thomas Aquinas, nicely formatted for viewing (and downloading). Hosted by the Universidad de Navarra.
Nicolas d’Autrécourt
A site dedicated to Nicholas of Autrecourt, maintained by Christophe Grellard.
The Franciscan Archive
A WWW resourced on St. Francis and Franciscanism. Of particular interest is the page on Peter Lombard, including an on-going translation, with facing original Latin, of Lombard's Sentences, as well as the page with an on-going translation, with facing original Latin, of Bonaventure's Commentary on the Sentences.

Societies, academies, institutes

Medieval Academy of America
Information about the Academy, its members, annual meetings, Speculum, book publications, a calendar of events, grants, prizes and awards, links, etc.
The Society for Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy.
A brand new site, still under construction. Stay tuned for new offerings.
Società italiana per lo studio del pensiero medievale.
Information (in Italian) on the Society, and links to other relevant sites.
Société internationale pour l'étude de la philosophie médiévale (SIEPM).
Information (in French) on the Society, its congresses, colloquia, publications and officers.
Centro per ricerche di filosofia medievale.
While you're browsing through the site for the journal Medioevo, you might also want to check out this site for the journal's home institution.
Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies
Describes the history of the Institute, their program and their resources.
The Franciscan Institute.
Information on the Institute, their program, staff, publications and library.
Medieval Studies Institute (Indiana University).
Description of the program, course descriptions, annual conference, etc.
The Medieval Institute, Western Michigan University.
Includes information on the annual international conference held there every May.
Hugo-von-Sankt-Viktor-Institut
The Institute (located in Frankfurt) is concerned with the critical edition of the works of Hugh of St. Victor, as well as research in mediaeval philosophy and theology. The Director is Prof. Dr. Rainer Berndt, SJ. They can also be reached by e-mail at: hsv-st-georgen-ffm@em.uni-frankfurt.de.
Collaborative Programme in Ancient and Medieval Philosophy at the University of Toronto.
Includes a description of the program, admission information, faculty list, courses, activities, etc.
Institute for Greek and Latin, University of Copenhagen
Description of projects and publications, staff, research fellows, etc. Includes links.
Die Umbrüche in der Wissenskultur des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts
Home page (in German) for the research project on the theories of science and scientific culture in the 12th and 13th centuries, from the Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt.
International Federation of Institutes for Medieval Studies in the World (Fédération internationale des instituts d'études médiévales [F.I.D.E.M.])
Information on the European Congress of Medieval Studies, publications, member universities, and the European diploma for medieval studies.
Society for Medieval Logic and Metaphysics
Contains links to announcements of their meetings, proceedings and newsletters, links to works in progress, and a list of recent publications.

Libraries:

See also under "Manuscript resources," below.

Vatican Film Library (St. Louis University).
Information regarding their programs and facilities. (Also includes the most — how shall I put it — unusual "Under Construction" icon I've ever seen!)
Hill Monastic Manuscript Library Home Page.
If you don't know about the Hill Monastic Manuscript Library, run — do not walk — to their Home Page!
Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin
Not strictly a "library," but they've published so many classic works in mediaeval philosophy that we might as well count them as one. The site is available in either French or English. You can download their entire catalogue in Adobe PDF format.

Journals:

Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy.
A new journal devoted to using logical methods (not necessarily highly formal ones) applied to the study of the history of philosophy. For further information, see also the description on my [Forum] page.
Medieval Philosophy and Theology.
Home page of the journal, published by Cambridge University Press. Among other things, it contains the tables of contents of past and (near-) future issues.
Medioevo: Rivista di storia della filosofia medievale.
This is a convenient site that reproduces the Tables of Contents of all issues published to date, an advance peek at the contents of future volumes, and a thematic index to guide you to relevant articles.
DIDASCALIA: A Journal for Philosophy and Philology from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance.
Includes on-line versions of articles.
Revue thomiste
Homepage for the journal, edited by the Institut saint Thomas d'Aquin in Toulouse.
Studies in Bibliography Online (The Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia).
Studies in Bibliography has been and continues to be an important journal for editing, textual criticism and bibliographical matters in general. The entire contents of this eminent journal are available online here, in searchable form. A gold-mine! While you’re at this site, you can follow the link to the home-page of the Society, and see what else they are up to. (Note: Visitors to my own pages may find the focus of the Society and of the Studies a little unfamiliar to them. The Society and theStudies are much more concerned with the history of printed works — for example, the works of Shakespeare or Mark Twain — than mediaevalists are generally used to. But there is much in the Studies that is of concern to editors of mediaeval texts too. And besides, it is interesting and instructive to see what different issues are raised by the slight shift of focus.)
Bochumer Philosophisches Jahrbuch für Antike und Mittelalter
Editorial and subscription information, and on-line Tables of Contents of past and (near-) future issues.
Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Âge grec et latin (CIMAGL)
Description of the journal, subscription information, and a list of the contents of issues published so far.

On-line texts, translations, course materials, research tools:

See also the sites under "Broad metasites" and "Narrower topics/individual authors," above. Many sites under "Scholars' home pages," below, also have valuable materials. Research tools may also be found under "Software for scholars," below. Finally, don't forget the materials on my own Download page.

Allen & Greenough's New Latin Grammar.
An HTML version of this wonderful, classic reference grammar.
Thomas Aquinas's Summa theologiae.
The popular "English Dominican" translation (no Latin). The various sections of the Summa can be viewed here right on-screen in HTML format.
The Early Church Fathers.
This is a downloadable version of the well-known three-part set of English translations: "The Ante-Nicene, Nicene, and Post-Nicene Fathers," described as a "thirty-eight volume collection of writings from the first 800 years of the Church." The texts are in plain ASCII format, in compressed "zip" files (containing the ASCII text), in WinHelp format, and in Adobe "pdf" format. (Not all texts are available in all these forms.) An alternative site for finding these texts (arranged slightly differently) is located at the New Advent Catholic Website.
The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Also at the "New Advent Catholic Supersite" maintained by the Knights of Columbus. A partially completed on-line version of the original edition published in 1913 (although the dates on individual volumes may vary). They are looking for volunteers to contribute to this project by converting various articles for on-line use.
The Oklahoma State University Philosophy Department Home Page.
There is a link here to a list of holdings of the Translation Clearing House (Walter G. Scott, Director:wscott@okway.okstate.edu.) The idea behind the Translation Clearing House is simple: Many of us have prepared translations of various texts that we use in our courses and elsewhere. If they are useful to us, they will probably be useful to other people too. The Clearing House is a depository of such translations. They are available to all interested parties on a demand basis, for what amounts to the mere cost of duplicating and mailing. If you have translations of your own that you would be willing to contribute (don't be shy!), please help out. (The translator's rights are protected, and suitable provisions are made for withdrawing your texts, if necessary, if they appear in print elsewhere.) If you are interested in using such translations, please go to their Web site to see what they have. Help support the cause!
Late Medieval and Early Modern Intellectual History.
Maintained by John Kilcullen. This site contains corrections to Latin texts, English translations and transcripts of lectures. Good stuff!
John Kilcullen's Phil252, Phil360 page.
Contains two complete courses taught at Macquarie University, one on Medieval Philosophy and one on Later Medieval Philosophy.
John Kilcullen's POL167, POL264 page.
Contains two complete courses on political theory. POL167 "Introduction to Political Theory" includes material on Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham, as well as non-mediaeval authors. (POL 264 is "Modern Political Theory.")
Ockham's Dialogus
Latin text and English translation, by John Kilcullen and John Scott. This is the first text in the Auctores Britannici medii aevi series to be published over the Internet. (In progress.)
Massimo Parodi's (Milan) page "Storia della filosofia medievale II (1995/96)."
The product of what was obviously an extremely valuable course. This site contains the full Latin text of Aquinas' De ente et essentia, together with lots of commentary and discussion, including some very nice graphical representations of the structure and the various arguments in the text.
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
A new on-line enyclopedia, with two conspicuous virtues: (1) it's revisable, and so stays up to date, and (2) it's free, at least for now. (Gyula Klima, Jack Zupko and I are serving as editors for the articles on mediaeval things.)
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Hosted by the University of Tenessee at martin, and edited by James Fieser. Contains a collection of texts.
The Ecole Initiative: Creating a Hypertext Encyclopedia of Early Church History on the World-Wide Web
A very rich site, with documents in translation, articles, images, a glossary, a chronology, links to other sites. The works!
Guide to the Hard Little Words
Martin Irvine's handlist of those pesky little Latin words that give translators nightmares. Some specialized mediaeval usages are given along with the standard meanings.
Latin Resources
Likewise maintained by Martin Irvine, this page has links to some texts, plus a wonderful group of links to sites offering all sorts of grammatical and lexical aids for learning and using Latin. A goldmine if you're learning Latin.
A Web of On-line Dictionaries
Maintained by Robert Beard, an amazing set of links to on-line dictionaries in more languages than you'll ever need. Latin, Greek, Arabic and Hebrew are of course included, but you'll also find dictionaries for many others. There are also links to multilingual dictionaries, specialized English dictionaries, thesauri and vocabulary aids, etc.
A Web of On-line Grammars
Likewise maintained by Robert Beard. This is a set of links to all sorts of on-line grammars. Arabuc and Hebrew are not included, but Latin and Greek are, as well as many more.
Christian Classics Ethereal Library
Classic Christian books in electronic format. A goldmine of translated materials available for downloading.
S. Th. de Aquino OPERA
A very nice site with on-line Latin texts from the Leonine edition of Thomas Aquinas, including the Quaestiones de anima, De intellectu, and De ente et essentia. The site is managed by Zbigniew Pajda, O.P.
Johannes Buridanus, Summulae I, "De propositionibus"
A preliminary version of Ria van der Lecq's critical edition of the Latin text.
Dallas Medieval Texts & Translations
A new series edited by Philipp W. Rosemann at the University of Dallas.
CommBase: An Electronic Database of Medieval Commentators on Aristotle and Peter Lombard's Sentences
The most current data are available for download in 32-bit MS Access format. An earlier stand-alone program for 16-bit machines (last updated September 2001) is also available for download.
Mentalcode: Latin
An interactive online Latin learning resource.
Medieval Psychological Sources on the Internet
Links to online versions of medieval commentaries on the De anima. Mainly digitized versions of early printed texts, but other kinds of materials are there as well. Maintained by Pekka Kärkkäinen.

Software for scholars:

"Abbreviationes" (TM) project.
This is an electronic database of mediaeval Latin palaeographical abbreviations, going far beyond Cappelli/Pelzer and similar printed manuals. Available on CD-ROM (Windows and Mac). All licenses include access Abbreviationes Online, a device-independent and OS agnostic site that needs only a web browser.
Critical Edition Typesetter (CET).
A typesetting program that converts suitably marked-up ASCII text-files into a PostScript file suitable for printing either on your personal printer or on a professional photo-typesetter. (TeX files are generated as an intermediary step.) The program comes with screen previewers (VGA) and a PostScript emulator for common printers. Up to nine independent footnote series are possible (justified or unjustified, two or three columns), calculation of line numbers and cross-references, etc. And it's very reasonably priced, too. New features include the ability to deal with Arabic and Hebrew texts. Note: Available in PC-IBM format only (80386 or better). The actual program cannot be downloaded here, but you can find out all about it, including how to order a copy.
Classical Text Editor (CTE).
A Windows only word-processor program for producing critical editions, developed by Stefan Hagel in cooperation with the Austrian Academy of Sciences and used for editions published by the Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum(CSEL). Despite its name, The program can just as easily be used for editions of non-classical texts. It supports multiple apparatus and sets of notes, uses a WYSIWYG interface and produces camera-ready copy. Recent versions support right-to-left entry (Hebrew and Arabic). A demo version is available for downloading, for either Windows 3.1 or Windows 95/NT. (The demo is a full-featured version of the program, except that the printing feature produces output with 'Unregistered version of Classical Text Editor' printed all over the top of your text. An effective deterrent to piracy, but it still lets you see just what the program can do.) The program is frequently upgraded, with new features being added continually, so check back with the above Website often. Note that the price quoted there is an institutional price; there is a substantialdiscount for individual buyers. Users of CTE should also note the entry for Typographica Academica Traiectina, below.
Collate 2.
A powerful collation program written by Peter Robinson. MacIntosh only, for now. For a "helpsheet," try this link.
Kalos.
Here's something all readers of Greek will appreciate! A nifty freeware classical Greek verb-conjugator! For 32-bit Windows only. Those who (like me) secretly use Tutti i verbi Grecci all the time know how indispensable such an aid is. Developed by Gonzalo Diaz and Mariana Esplugas (Buenos Aires). (The utility comes with its own Greek TTF font.)
Typographica Academica Traiectina.
A typesetting company located in Utrecht, and specializing in high-quality TeX typography, especially for publications such as critical and multi-language editions. Users of "Classical Text Editor" (CTE) — see above — will be happy to learn that it will soon be possible for Typographica Academica Traiectina to publish directly from files prepared using CTE.
Imprimatur
A shareware markup language interpreter used to publish critical editions. Imprimatur requires Microsoft Windows 95 or higher, and Microsoft Word 95 or higher. It supports two series of variants, occurrence numbering in variants, linear or contiguous citations and text below the line (Additions). Number schemes include: line numbers, paragraph numbers, and Wadding numbers. References in the margins are also supported. The shareware version is not crippled in any way, but registered users get the help documentation. Students are permitted to use the program without charge for coursework. Samples of the output are available on the website.

Manuscript resources:

See also the sites under "Libraries," above.

Researchproject of L.M. de Rijk and E.P. Bos: Medieval Logical Manuscripts
This is a gold mine! A searchable database of medieval Latin texts on logic found in medieval manuscripts. The database is built around notes compiled by L.M. de Rijk throughout his distinguished career. E.P. Bos has overseen the enormous task of making this wealth of information available to the world on the Web. Texts and manuscripts represented date from 500 to 1500, and do not include copies of the ars vetus or ars nova, although they do include commentaries on works in the ars vetus and the ars nova. Dr. Bos welcomes additions and corrections, so by all means visit this site and help make it as useful as possible.
World Microfilms.
A collection of microfilms, available for purchase, from many of the major British libraries and churches. Films are sold in sets, although individual reels are available separately. Lots here relevant to mediaeval philosophy, including logic.

Scholars' home pages:

James J. O'Donnell Home Page.
Wonderful stuff on Augustine, Boethius and other good things.
Peter King's Home Page.
Articles, presentations, unpublished materials, editions, translations, course materials, etc.
Gyula Klima's Home Page.
Neat things that can be downloaded, including papers and lecture notes! Klima's site also has a European mirror site.
Shimizu Tetsuro's Home Page.
On-line abstracts and full texts of papers.
Robert Pasnau's Home Page.
Includes course materials and work in progress.
Iwakuma Yukio's 12th Century Logic Home Page
Includes some of Iwakuma's papers, as well as links to other interesting places.
Terence Parsons' Home Page.
Includes a link to a page of translations, by Parsons and others, of mediaeval works in semantics, in Adobe PDF format: From De Rijk's Logica modernorum, Vol. II: Anonymous, Treatise on Univodation (complete); anonymous, Dialectica Monacensis (selection); anonymous, Cum sit nostra (selection); anonymous, Propteries of Discourse (De proprietatibus sermonum) (complete; and Albert of Saxony, Perutilis logica (selections).

Miscellaneous:

The Vatican
What can I say? Go directly to the top!
This one isn’t a Web site, but readers may be interested to know about Quaestio, a listserv for queries, discussion and announcements regarding the culture and writings of scholasticism, including medicine and natural science as well as theology, philosophy and law. (Messages are in either English or Latin.) The list is maintained by Philip Lyndon Reynolds. (For his e-mail address, see the[E-mail addresses] page at this site.) To subscribe to Quaestio, send an e-mail message tolistserv@listserv.emory.edu. In the body of the message, put nothing but the following: SUBSCRIBE QUAESTIO Firstname Lastname (for example, mine would read: SUBSCRIBE QUAESTIO Paul Spade). Disable any automatic signature feature on your e-mail program.
The Aquinas Cafe
A lighthearted site, which covers "an array of issues, adding a splash of California attitude and levity." Lots of fun, but there are some serious things as well. For instances, on-line passages from Aquinas on various topics.
Macedonian Heritage Mount Athos
A website about Mount Athos, including many stunning photographs!

A brief account of the history of logic, from the The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (edited by Ted Honderich), OUP 1997, 497-500.
A biography of Peter Abelard, published in the Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 115, edited by Jeremiah Hackett, Detroit: Gale Publishing, 3-15.
Philosophy in the Latin Christian West, 750-1050, in A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, edited by Jorge Gracia and Tim Noone, Blackwell 2003, 32-35.
Ockham wielding his razor!
Review of The Beatles Anthology, Chronicle Books 2000 (367pp).
A brief discussion note about Susan James, Passion and Action: The Emotions in Seventeenth-Century Philosophy.
Review of St. Thomas Aquinas by Ralph McInerny, University of Notre Dame Press 1982 (172pp). From International Philosophical Quarterly23 (1983), 227-229.
Review of William Heytesbury on Maxima and Minima by John Longeway, D.Reidel 1984 (x+201pp). From The Philosophical Review 96 (1987), 146-149.
Review of That Most Subtle Question by D. P. Henry, Manchester University Press 1984 (xviii+337pp). From The Philosophical Review 96 (1987), 149-152.
Review of Introduction to the Problem of Individuation in the Early Middle Ages by Jorge Gracia, Catholic University of America Press 1984 (303pp). From The Philosophical Review 97 (1988), 564-567.
Review of Introduction to Medieval Logic by Alexander Broadie, OUP 1987 (vi+150pp). From The Philosophical Review 99 (1990), 299-302.

cotus, Reportatio parisiensis 1A d.3 q.4, working textual edition of Scotus's late Parisian discussion of the question: "Whether in the intellective part of the soul taken strictly there is memory, having an intelligible species really distinct from the act of thinking and prior to the intellect's activity." See my article Duns Scotus on Mental Content for discussion of this text.

Augustine: Against the Academicians and The Teacher, with introduction and notes. Hackett 1995. ISBN 08-722-0212-7.

Jean Buridan's Philosophy of Logic, translations of "The Treatise on Consequences" and "The Treatise on Supposition" with an introductionand notes. Synthese Historical Library Vol. 26. Dordrecht: D. Reidel 1985. ISBN 90-277-1918-7.

Abelard on sameness and difference (from his Theologia christiana).
Boethius, On the Hebdomads.
Aquinas, Exposition of Boethius's "Treatise on the Hebdomads".
Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "Metaphysics" 7.3 (1029a5-30), on substance and prime matter.
Siger of Brabant, The Eternity of the World.
Duns Scotus, the "Treatise on the Common Nature and Individuation" (Ordinatio 2 d.3 p.2 qq.1-6):

Ord. 2 d.3 p.2 q.1: Whether a material substance is individual by its very nature.
Ord. 2 d.3 p.2 q.2: Whether a material substance is individual through some positive intrinsic feature.
Ord. 2 d.3 p.2 q.3: Whether a material substance is individual through its very existence.
Ord. 2 d.3 p.2 q.4: Whether a material substance is individual through quantity.
Ord. 2 d.3 p.2 qq.5-6: Whether a material substance is individual through matter, or through some beingness per se determining the nature to singularity.

William of Ockham, the "Treatise on Universals" (Ordinatio I d.2 qq.4-8):)

Ord. 1 d.2 q.4 : Whether that which is immediately and proximately denominated by a universal and univocal intention is some genuine thing outside the soul, intrinsic and essential to those [things] to which it is common and univocal, yet really distinct from them. [Walter Burleigh's View]
Ord. 1 d.2 q.5 : Whether what is universal and univocal is a genuine thing outside the soul that is really distinct from the individual, yet really existing in it, really multiplied and varied. [William of Alnwick's View]
Ord. 1 d.2 q.6 : Whether something that is universal and univocal is really outside the soul, distinct from the individual in virtue of the nature of the thing, although not really distinct [from the individual]. [Duns Scotus's View]
Ord. 1 d.2 q.7 : Whether that which is universal and common as univocal is in any way really a parte rei outside the soul. [The Common View]
Ord. 1 d.2 q.8 : Whether what is universal [and] univocal is something real existing subjectively somewhere. [Ockham's own view, sort of]

Caterus (Johannes van Kater), First Objections (to Descartes's Meditations) [excerpt].
Hobbes, Leviathan 14-15 (excerpts translated from the Latin version).

Articles

Augustine and Anselm on Angelic Sin, forthcoming in an anthology edited by Tobias Hoffmann.
Mediaeval Intentionality, forthcoming in Quaestio.
Scotus Against Anselm: The Two-Wills Theory, forthcoming in the proceedings of the Scotus-Congresses.
Emotions in Medieval Thought, forthcoming in The Oxford Handbook of the Emotions, edited by Peter Goldie.
Augustine on Testimony [with Nathan Ballantyne], forthcoming in the Canadian Journal of Philosophy.
Thinking About Things: Singular Thought in the Middle Ages, forthcoming in Intentionality, Cognition, and Representation in the Middle Ages, edited by Gyula Klima (Fordham University Press).
The Inner Cathedral: Mental Architecture in High Scholasticism, in Vivarium 46 (2008), 253-274.
Boethius: The First of the Scholastics, in Carmina philosophiae 16 (2007), 23-50.
Damaged Goods: Human Nature and Original Sin, in Faith and Philosophy 24 (2007), 247-267.
Abelard's Answers to Porphyry, in Documenti e studi sulla tradizione filosofica medievale.
Abelard on Mental, in The American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly 81 (2007), 169-187.
Why Isn't the Mind-Body Problem Mediaeval?, in Forming the Mind, edited by Henrik Lagerlund, Springer Verlag 2007, 187-205.
Le rôle des concepts selon Ockham, Philosophiques 32 (2005), 435-447. [An English version is available here.]
Anselm, forthcoming in The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (second edition).
Duns Scotus on Singular Essences, in Medioevo 30 (2005), 111-137.
Ockham's "Summa logicae", in Central Works of Philosophy Vol. 1, edited by John Shand, Acumen Publishing 2005, 242-269.
Abelard, in the online Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
Augustine's Encounter with Neoplatonism, in The Modern Schoolman 82 (2005), 213-226.
Anselm on the Philosophy of Language, in The Cambridge Companion to Anselm, edited by Brian Leftow and Brian Davies, Cambridge University Press 2004, 84-110.
Duns Scotus on Mental Content, Duns Scot à Paris, 1302-2002 (Actes du colloque de Paris, 2-4 septembre 2002), eds. O. Boulnois, E. Karger, J-L Solère, G. Sondag, Collection Textes et Etudes du Moyen Age no.26, Brepols 2004, 65-88.
Two Conceptions of Experience in Medieval Philosophy and Theology 11 (2003), 203-226.
Rethinking Representation in the Middle Ages, in Representation and Objects of Thought in Medieval Philosophy, edited by Henrik Lagerlund, Ashgate Press 2007, 81-100.
The Metaphysics of Peter Abelard, in The Cambridge Companion to Abelard, edited by Jeff Brower and Kevin Guilfoy, Cambridge University Press 2004, 65-125. There is a review of this anthology by Martin Tweedale here.
Duns Scotus on Possibilities, Powers, and the Possible, in Potentialität und Possibilität: Modalaussagen in der Geschichte der Metaphysik, eds. Thomas Buchheim, C. H. Kneepkens, and Kuno Lorenz. Fromann-Holzboog: Stuttgart-Bad Canstatt 2001, 175-199.
Late Scholastic Theories of the Passions: Controversies in the Thomist Tradition, in Emotions and Choice from Boethius to Descartes. Edited by Henri Lagerlund and Mikko Yrjönsuuri. Kluwer 2002, 229-258.
Duns Scotus's Metaphysics, in The Cambridge Companion to John Duns Scotus, edited by Thomas Williams, Cambridge University Press 2003, 15-68. There is a review of this anthology by Stephen Dumont here, and a short note by Guus Labooy here.
Consequence as Inference: Mediaeval Proof Theory 1300-1350, in Medieval Formal Logic: Obligations, Insolubles, and Consequences, edited by Mikko Yrjönsuuri, The New Synthese Historical Library 49: Kluwer Academic Press 2001, 117-145.
John Buridan's Solution to the Problem of Universals, in The Metaphysics and Natural Philosophy of John Buridan, edited by J. M. M. H. Thijssen and Jack Zupko, E. J. Brill 2001, 1-27.
The Problem of Individuation in the Middle Ages, in Theoria 66 (2000), 159-184.
Aquinas on the Passions, in Aquinas's Moral Theory, edited by Scott MacDonald and Eleonore Stump, Cornell University Press 1999, 101-132.
Ockham's Ethical Theory, in The Cambridge Companion to William of Ockham, edited by Paul Spade, Cambridge University Press 1999, 227-244.
Augustine on the Impossibility of Teaching, in Metaphilosophy 29.3 (1998), 179-195.
Thomas Hobbes's Children, in The Philosopher's Child: Critical Essays in the Western Tradition, edited by Susan M. Turner and Gareth B. Matthews, University of Rochester Press 1998, 65-83.
From intellectus uerus/falsus to the dictum propositionis: The Semantics of Peter Abelard and His Circle [with Klaus Jacobi and Christian Strub], inVivarium 34.1 (1996), 15-40.
Abelard's Intentionalist Ethics, in The Modern Schoolman 72 (1995), 213-232.
Duns Scotus on the Reality of Self-Change, in Self-Motion From Aristotle to Newton, edited by Mary-Louise Gill and Jim Lennox, Princeton University Press 1994, 227-290.
Scholasticism and the Philosophy of Mind: The Failure of Aristotelian Psychology, in Scientific Failure, edited by Tamara Horowitz and Allen I. Janis, Rowman & Littlefield 1994, 109-138.
Bonaventure's Theory of Individuation, in Individuation in Scholasticism: The Later Middle Ages and the Counter-Reformation, 1150-1650, edited by Jorge Gracia, SUNY Press 1994, 141-172.
Jean Buridan's Theory of Individuation, in Individuation in Scholasticism: The Later Middle Ages and the Counter-Reformation, 1150-1650, edited by Jorge Gracia, SUNY Press 1994, 397-430.
Duns Scotus on the Common Nature and the Individual Differentia, in Philosophical Topics 20 (1992), 50-76.
Mediaeval Thought-Experiments: The Metamethodology of Mediaeval Science, in Thought-Experiments in Science and Philosophy, edited by Gerry Massey and Tamara Horowitz, Rowman & Littlefield 1991, 43-64.
Towards a Theory of the General Will, in History of Philosophy Quarterly 4 (1987), 33-51.
Jean Buridan's Philosophy of Science, in Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 18 (1987), 109-132.
Anselm's Intentional Argument, in History of Philosophy Quarterly 1 (1984), 147-166.

Franco Ferrarotti
Piano di lavoro
in "Quaderni di sociologia" - Estate 1951, n. 1.

Nicola Abbagnano - Luciano Gallino
I venticinque anni dei Quaderni,
in "Quaderni di sociologia", Nuova Serie, vol. XXV, n. 1, Gennaio-Marzo 1976.

Franco Ferrarotti
Nicola Abbagnano: la generosità di un maestro
in www.nicolaabbagnano.it, Luglio 2002

Luciano Gallino e Paolo Ceri (a cura di)
La società italiana. Cinquant'anni di mutamenti visti dai "Quaderni di sociologia"
"Quaderni di sociologia", Nuova Serie, vol. XLV, n. 26-27, 2001, pp. 560
Fascicolo doppio straordinario pubblicato in occasione del cinquantenario della rivista.
Presentazione
Indice

Franco Ferrarotti
Piano di lavoro
in "Quaderni di sociologia" - Estate 1951, n. 1.

Nicola Abbagnano - Luciano Gallino

I venticinque anni dei Quaderni,

in "Quaderni di sociologia", Nuova Serie, vol. XXV, n. 1, Gennaio-Marzo 1976.

Franco Ferrarotti
Nicola Abbagnano: la generosità di un maestro
in www.nicolaabbagnano.it, Luglio 2002

Hume -- A Treatise of Human Nature
Hume -- Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding.
Hume--Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals.
Hume -- Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion.
Reid -- Inquiry into the Human Mind.
Smith -- Theory of Moral Sentiments

David Hume--General Sources

Hume--Special Interests

Hume and Religion

Hume and Aesthetics

Adam Smith

James Beattie

Thomas Reid

George Campbell

Scottish Philosophy in the 19th Century

Carmichael and Hutcheson--and Others

Hume and the Continent

Scottish Philosophy in America

Concluding Nonphilosophical Comments

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Works by Edmund D. Pellegrino

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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2006). Bioethics and Politics: "Doing Ethics" in the Public Square. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 31 (6):569 – 584.

Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2005). Homage to David Thomasma: Introduction. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 26 (6).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2005). Some Things Ought Never Be Done: Moral Absolutes in Clinical Ethics. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 26 (6).
Moral absolutes have little or no moral standing in our morally diverse modern society. Moral relativism is far more palatable for most ethicists and to the public at large. Yet, when pressed, every moral relativist will finally admit that there are some things which ought never be done. It is the rarest of moral relativists that will take rape, murder, theft, child sacrifice as morally neutral choices. In general ethics, the list of those things that must never be done will (...)
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2002). Medical Evidence and Virtue Ethics: A Commentary on Zarkovich and Upshur. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 23 (4-5).
Virtue Ethics in Normative Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2002). Obituary. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 23 (1).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Thomas K. McElhinney & Edmund D. Pellegrino (2001). The Institute on Human Values in Medicine: Its Role and Influence in the Conception and Evolution of Bioethics. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 22 (4).
For ten years, 1971–1981, the Institute onHuman Values in Medicine (IHVM) played a keyrole in the development of Bioethics as afield. We have written this history andanalysis to bring to new generations ofBioethicists information about the developmentof their field within both the humanitiesdisciplines and the health professions. Thepioneers in medical humanities and ethics cametogether with medical professionals in thedecade of the 1960s. By the 1980s Bioethics wasa fully recognized discipline. We show the rolethat IHVM programs played in defining thefield, training (...)
Evolutionary Biology in Philosophy of Biology
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2001). Physician-Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia: Rebuttals of Rebuttals the Moral Prohibition Remains. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26 (1):93 – 100.
Euthanasia in Applied Ethics
Assisted Suicide in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2001). The Internal Morality of Clinical Medicine: A Paradigm for the Ethics of the Helping and Healing Professions. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 26 (6):559 – 579.
The moral authority for professional ethics in medicine customarily rests in some source external to medicine, i.e., a pre-existing philosophical system of ethics or some form of social construction, like consensus or dialogue. Rather, internal morality is grounded in the phenomena of medicine, i.e., in the nature of the clinical encounter between physician and patient. From this, a philosophy of medicine is derived which gives moral force to the duties, virtues and obligations of physicians qua physicians. Similarly, an ethic specific (...)
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2000). Bioethics at Century's Turn: Can Normative Ethics Be Retrieved? Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 25 (6):655 – 675.
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (2000). Carl E. Schneider, the Practice of Autonomy: Patients, Doctors, and Medical Decisions. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics21 (4).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1999). The Commodification of Medical and Health Care: The Moral Consequences of a Paradigm Shift From a Professional to a Market Ethic. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 24 (3):243 – 266.
Commodification of health care is a central tenet of managed care as it functions in the United States. As a result, price, cost, quality, availability, and distribution of health care are increasingly left to the workings of the competitive marketplace. This essay examines the conceptual, ethical, and practical implications of commodification, particularly as it affects the healing relationship between health professionals and their patients. It concludes that health care is not a commodity, that treating it as such is deleterious to (...)
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1999). The Origins and Evolution of Bioethics: Some Personal Reflections. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 9 (1).
Evolutionary Biology in Philosophy of Biology
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1998). What the Philosophy of Medicine Is. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 19 (4).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1997). Managed Care at the Bedside: How Do We Look in the Moral Mirror? Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 7 (4).
: Managed care per se is a morally neutral concept; however, as practiced today, it raises serious ethical issues at the clinical, managerial, and social levels. This essay focuses on the ethical issues that arise at the bedside, looking first at the ethical conflicts faced by the physician who is charged with responsibility for care of the patient and then turning to the way in which managed care exacts costs that are measured not in dollars but in compromises in the (...)
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1996). Clinical Ethics: Balancing Praxis and Theory. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 6 (4).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1993). The Virtues in Medical Practice. Oxford University Press.
In recent years, virtue theories have enjoyed a renaissance of interest among general and medical ethicists. This book offers a virtue-based ethic for medicine, the health professions, and health care. Beginning with a historical account of the concept of virtue, the authors construct a theory of the place of the virtues in medical practice. Their theory is grounded in the nature and ends of medicine as a special kind of human activity. The concepts of virtue, the virtues, and the virtuous (...)
Medical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino & David C. Thomasma (1987). Medicine as a Science of Action a Response to Peter Hucklenbroich. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 2 (2).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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David C. Thomasma & Edmund D. Pellegrino (1987). Challenges for a Philosophy of Medicine of the Future: A Response to Fellow Philosophers in the Netherlands. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 2 (2).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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David C. Thomasma & Edmund D. Pellegrino (1987). The Role of the Family and Physicians in Decisions for Incompetent Patients. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 8 (3).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1984). Autonomy and Coercion in Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 5 (1).
Most of the attention regarding the balance between autonomy and paternalism has been focused on the therapeutic relation. Much less attention has been devoted to the problem of autonomy in the application of medical knowledge for preventive purposes. Here, because the good to be achieved is social as well as individual, an unavoidable dilemma ensues. Effective preventive measures of benefit to all must necessarily limit autonomy and involve some coercion. I argue that there are principles which can be established to (...)
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1984). The Humanities in Medical Education: Entering the Post-Evangelical Era. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 5 (3).
Biomedical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino (1982). Is a Common Denominator Possible for Professional Medical Ethics?: Commentary on De Vries' Reflections on a Medical Ethics for the Future. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 3 (1).
Medical Ethics in Applied Ethics
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Edmund D. Pellegrino & David C. Thomasma (1981). Toward an Axiology for Medicine a Response to Kazem Sadegh-Zadeh. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 2 (3).
Axiology in Value Theory, Miscellaneous
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David C. Thomasma & Edmund D. Pellegrino (1981). Philosophy of Medicine as the Source for Medical Ethics. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 2 (1).
The article offers an approach to inquiry about, the foundation of medical ethics by addressing three areas of conceptual presupposition basic to medical ethical theory. First, medical ethics must presuppose a view about the nature of medicine. it is argued that the view required by a cogent medical morality entails that medicine be seen both as a healing relationship and as a practical art. Three ways in which medicine inherently involves values and valuation are presented as

Links:
Biases of the Ear and Eye This is an introduction by Daniel Chandler to the issue of interpretive biases in favour of speech (phonocentrism), writing (graphocentrism or scriptism) and language (logocentrism). URL: http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/litoral/litoral.html (Added: 19-Dec-1998 Hits: 2576) Body Language/Linguaggio del Corpo This site deals with nonverbal behavior and related topics. It is available in three versions (English, Italian, French); has a lot of links and a "library on line" in which more than 200 papers and abstracts on nonverbal behavior are collected. URL: http://digilander.libero.it/linguaggiodelcorpo/nonverb/ (Added: 7-Apr-2001 Hits: 5966) Center for Research in Language The Center for Research in Language (CRL) brings together faculty, students and research associates who share an interest in the nature of language, the processes by which it is acquired and used, and the mediation of language in the human brain. URL: http://crl.ucsd.edu/ (Added: 12-Dec-1998 Hits: 3335) Dyslexic Children Have Abnormal Brain Lactate Children with dyslexia have difficulty learning to recognize written words due to subtle deficits in oral language related to processing sounds and accessing words automatically. The purpose of this study was to compare regional changes in brain lactate between dyslexic children and control children (age- and IQ-matched children who are good readers, ages 9-12, all right handed boys) during oral language activation. URL: http://faculty.washington.edu/toddr/dyslexic1.htm (Added: 28-May-2000 Hits: 941) Language Research on language acquisition/use can be divided into first and second language learning settings. URL: http://tip.psychology.org/language.html (Added: 22-Jul-1999 Hits: 4660) Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics The Institute's research topic is psycholinguistics, i.e. the study of mental processes involved in language production, language comprehension and language acquisition, as well as the relation between language, thought, and culture ("cognitive anthropology"). URL: http://www.mpi.nl/ (Added: 26-Feb-2000 Hits: 1880) MRC Psycholinguistic Database This database is designed to be of use to psycholinguists in selecting stimulus materials for testing; for use by researchers in Artificial Intelligence as a source of information required for natural language processing and cognitive simulation; and for use by computer scientists who wish to use the word lists and syntactic information in the design of text processors. URL: http://www.psy.uwa.edu.au/MRCDataBase/uwa_mrc.htm (Added: 12-Oct-2000 Hits: 860) Species and Individual Differences The responses and behaviors of some animals appear to be very much like our own behaviors. There is a difference in the response elicited and the communication of events that takes place. URL: http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/05/24/bbs00000524-00/bbs.lubinski.html (Added: 24-Jul-1999 Hits: 831) The Effects of a Phonologically-Driven Treatment for Dyslexia on Lactate Levels Dyslexia is a language disorder in which reading ability is compromised due to poor phonological skills. The purpose of this study was to measure the effect of a phonologically-driven treatment for dyslexia on brain lactate response to language stimulation as measured by proton MR spectroscopic imaging. URL: http://faculty.washington.edu/toddr/dyslexic2.htm (Added: 28-May-2000 Hits: 392) The Infography about Child Language Acquisition Books and articles recommended by a professor who specializes in research about the acquisition of language skills by children. URL: http://www.infography.com/content/882540556547.html (Added: 6-Mar-2004 Hits: 823) The Infography about Conceptual Blending Online and print resources recommended by a professor who specializes in research about conceptual understanding. URL: http://www.infography.com/content/635591689327.html (Added: 6-Mar-2004 Hits: 256) Vygotsky's Distinction Between Lower and Higher Mental Functions and Recent Studies on Infant Cognitive Development One of the major theoretical advances of Vygotsky's approach to cognitive development was his thesis that human mental functions were social in origins. Vygotsky introduced a distinction between lower mental functions (LMF's) and higher mental functions (HMF's) (Vygotsky, 1983). URL: http://psych.hanover.edu/vygotsky/subbot.html (Added: 22-Jul-1999 Hits: 3037)

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETES

American Philosophical Association- American Society for Aesthetics- Ancient Philosophy Society- Australian Society for Continental Philosophy- Canadian Philosophical Association- Canadian Society for Hermeneutics and Postmodern Thought- Collegium Phaenomenologicum- Existential and Phenomenological Theory and Culture- Foucault Circle- Gabriel Marcel Society- The Hegel Society of America- The Hegel Society of Great Britain- International Institute for Hermeneutics- Karl Jaspers Society of North America- Luce Irigaray Circle- Melbourne School of Continental Philosophy- Merleau-Ponty Circle- New Nietzsche Society- North American Fichte Society- North American Kant Society- North American Heidegger Conference- North American Nietzsche Society- North American Sartre Society- North American Society for Philosophical Hermeneutics- North American Society for Social Philosophy- Radical Philosophy Association- Simone de Beauvoir Society- Society for Continental Philosophy and Theology- Society for German Idealism- Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy (SPEP)- Society for Women in Philosophy (SWIP)

QUALITIES

^^^^^^^^
Righteous (Righteousness)
Tzaddik (Tzedakah)
Dikaios
Right / Correct / Just(ice)
Knowing, thinking, & doing what is right (Greek: without partiality)
.
Godly(Godliness)
Hesed
Eusebeia
Merciful / Devout / Pious
Obedient to God; kind to others
.
Pure / Clean
Tahor
Katharos
Undefiled / Unmixed / Chaste
No two elements together, single as in single-minded
.
Spotless
Tamim
Aspilos
Unstained / Unspotted
Without alteration, complete and fulfilled
.
Graceful
[C]Hanan
Charisma
Favored / Endowed / Delightful
Gracious=favored with a gift, endues or causes delight
.
Faithful (Faithfulness)
Emunah
Pistos
Persuaded / Trustworthy / Reliable / Proven
Active Form: trusting, relying, performing
.
Good (Goodness)
Tov
Agathos
Beneficial / Honorable
Pleasing to God; having a desirable effect
.
Holy (Holiness)
Kadosh
Hagios
Sanctified / Separated / Special
Unique character because of inhabiting special or unique qualities
.
Anointed
Mishchah
Aleipho
Signified
To be daubed, repaired, to be a sign
.
Dedicated
Hanak
Enkainizo
Initiated / Commenced
To narrow; (Greek: To make new, renew, keep an appointed feast)
.
Consecrated
Malay
Teleios
Confirmed / Accomplished / Perfected / Matured
To be full (Greek: To reach the goal; to finish)
.
Chosen
Bachar
Ekloge
Elected / Selected / Picked
To try, so to select (Greek: to be picked out)
.
Called
Kara
Kaleo
Summoned / Named / Bidded / Invited
Addressed by name; to be invited or labeled
.
Ordained
Sum
Tithemi
Appointed
To put; to assign to any service

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